Dystopia
Dystopiczna wizja
świata
Dystopia (st.gr.
δυσ – zły; τόπος – miejsce) - czarna wizja przyszłości, wewnętrznie spójna i
wynikająca z krytycznej obserwacji otaczającej sytuacji społecznej. Dystopia przyjmuje
pesymistyczny osąd zastanego świata, wizja jest zazwyczaj jego hiperboliczną
konstatacją, negującą możliwość odmiany w przyszłości zastanego stanu rzeczy.
Dystopia a
antyutopia
Dystopia, ze
względu na podobieństwa w kreowaniu odstręczających obrazów ludzkiej
egzystencji, jest często utożsamiana z antyutopią. Istotna różnica między tymi
zjawiskami polega na tym, że dystopia swoje pesymistyczne wizje przyszłości
wywodzi bezpośrednio z rzeczywistości, a nie z utopijnych programów jej naprawy.
W języku niefachowym i w większości słowników oba te pojęcia są definiowane
synonimicznie.
Dystopie
Eine Dystopie (zu griechisch dys- = schlecht und tópos = Platz, Stelle; englisch dystopia), auch Antiutopie, selten auch Kakotopie oder Mätopie genannt, ist ein Gegenbild zur positiven Utopie, der Eutopie, und in der Literaturwissenschaft eine fiktionale, in der Zukunft spielende Erzählung mit negativem Ausgang.[1]
Sie entwirft ein zukunftspessimistisches Szenario von einer Gesellschaft, die sich zum Negativen entwickelt, und stellt somit einen Gegenentwurf zu Thomas Morus’ Utopia dar. Häufig wollen die Autoren dystopischer Geschichten mit Hilfe eines pessimistischen Zukunftsbildes auf bedenkliche gesellschaftliche Entwicklungen der Gegenwart aufmerksam machen und vor deren Folgen warnen.[2]
Begriff
Der Begriff Dystopie (griechisch δυς dys- für „miss“-, „un“-, „übel“- und lateinisch topia für „Landschaftsmalerei“, -„beschreibung“, zu griechisch τόπος topos für „Ort“, „Gegend“) hat vor allem in jüngerer Zeit breite Verwendung gefunden. Synonyme sind Anti-Utopie, negative Utopie, schwarze Utopie oder Gegenutopie; selten wird auch Kakotopie oder Mätopie verwendet. Dystopie ist ansonsten auch ein medizinischer Fachbegriff, mit dem eine wechselseitige negative Beeinflussung von Krankheiten bezeichnet wird.
Eine Utopie ist dem eigentlichen Wortsinn nach die Beschreibung eines „Nicht-Ortes“, d. h. eines Ortes, den es im realen Leben nicht gibt; es ist ein herbeigewünschtes Nirgendwo: die griechische Vorsilbe ου- ou- ist verneinend wie das deutsche „un-“ im Sinne von „nicht-“. Philosophische und literarische Utopien sind faktisch aber ausgeführte Entwürfe eines Staates oder Landes, dessen Gesellschaft gut organisiert ist, was deshalb gelegentlich ähnlich klingend (im Englischen sogar gleich klingend) Eutopie genannt wird, denn die griechische Vorsilbe ευ- eu- steht für „gut“- oder „wohl“-. Eben dazu ist δυσ- dys- das Gegenstück. Insofern sind die Begriffe Dystopia und Utopia nicht exakt gegenteilige Begriffe in dem Sinne wie z. B. Dysphorie und Euphorie.
Gesellschaft
Eine dystopische Gesellschaft ist in der Regel charakterisiert durch eine diktatorische Herrschaftsform oder eine Form repressiver sozialer Kontrolle. Typische Charakteristika einer Dystopie: Dem Individuum ist durch mechanisierte Superstaaten jegliche Freiheit genommen, die Kommunikation der Menschen untereinander ist eingeschränkt oder anderweitig gestört und das Bewusstsein der eigenen Geschichte und/oder eigener Werte gekappt.
Geschichte und Herkunft
Die Geschichte der Dystopien beginnt erst im Zeitalter der industriellen Revolution. Zwar gab es schon immer Gegner von Naturwissenschaft und technologischem Fortschritt, doch resultierte daraus nie eine Gegenutopie. Selbst die Fortschrittgläubigen zweifelten zunächst an den technologischen Möglichkeiten. Erst als ihre Vorstellungen von der Realität eingeholt wurden, bestand ein Grund, die technologische Weiterentwicklung und ihre Tendenzen anzugreifen.
Erste Ansätze finden sich hier bei E. T. A. Hoffmann; die erste Dystopie im engeren Sinn ist Mary Shelleys Roman Verney, der letzte Mensch.
Der erste Gebrauch des Wortes wird John Stuart Mill zugeschrieben,[3] dessen gute Griechisch-Kenntnisse es vermuten lassen, dass er unter Dystopia nicht lediglich das Gegenteil von Thomas Morus’ Utopia verstand, sondern vielmehr einen Ort meinte, an dem es im weitesten Sinne schlecht um die Dinge bestellt sei.
Grenze des Fortschrittsoptimismus der industriellen Revolution
Die Zerstörung des Fortschrittsglaubens beginnt allmählich im letzten Drittel des 19. Jahrhunderts. Dies lässt sich auf folgende Gründe zurückführen:
- technische Entwicklung in zuvor nie dagewesener, exponentiell steigender Geschwindigkeit
- wachsende Zentralisierung von Ländern und den Machtverhältnissen darin
- generelle und kollektive fin-de-siècle-Angstvorstellungen
- fast alle bewohn- und bewirtschaftbaren Landflächen der Erde werden von Menschen oder Institutionen, wie Regierungen, besessen, die Grenzen räumlicher Expansion beginnen sich deutlich abzuzeichnen
Grundzüge einer dystopischen Gesellschaft
eine augenscheinlich utopische Gesellschaft, frei von Armut, Seuchen, Krankheit, Konflikten und sogar emotionaler Niedergeschlagenheit. Unter der Oberfläche offenbart sich jedoch genau das Gegenteil. Die zentralen Aspekte der Geschichte sind erstens das Problem an sich, zweitens die Art und Weise, wie dieses vertuscht wird, sowie drittens die Chronologie des Problems.Eine dystopische Gesellschaft weist für gewöhnlich mindestens einen der folgenden Züge aus dieser nicht erschöpfenden Liste auf:
- weitgehende Privatisierung der öffentlichen Daseinsvorsorge ohne funktionierende Aufsicht und Regulierung des Staates. Dies hat zur Folge, dass ärmere Schichten nicht mit Energie und Wasser versorgt werden.
- Privatisierung der öffentlichen Verwaltung, wie auch im Gegensatz dazu deren bloße, systembezogene Hypertrophierung, z. B. in Franz Kafkas Der Process
- soziale Schichtung, wobei die Gliederung der Gesellschaft in soziale Klassen streng definiert ist und ebenso streng durchgesetzt wird. Es fehlt an sozialer Mobilität, z. B. im Roman Schöne neue Welt von Aldous Huxley die Unterteilung in Alphas, Betas, Gammas, Deltas und Epsilons (Kastenwesen).
- eine reiche Oberschicht isoliert sich in nach außen abgeriegelten (und teilweise luxuriösen) Wohnkomplexen, während die restliche Bevölkerung unter einfachen Bedingungen hausen muss wie in Die Tribute von Panem von Suzanne Collins.
- ein hohes Wohlstandsgefälle sichert der reichen Oberschicht Zugang zu hochwertigen Lebensmitteln und Wasser, während sich der Rest der Bevölkerung mit künstlichen Nahrungsmitteln zufriedengeben muss.
- wenig bis gar keine Mitbestimmung der unteren Schichten an politischen Entscheidungen, die allein von der Obrigkeit getroffenen werden.
- staatliche Propaganda und ein Bildungssystem, das die meisten Bürger in die Anbetung des Staates und seiner Regierung nötigt und ihnen die Überzeugung aufzwingt, das Leben unter dem Regime sei gut und gerecht.
- die Einführung einer Sprache, die Kritik am Staat oder die Organisierung eines Aufstands unmöglich macht, da zu diesem Zweck schlicht die Worte fehlen (siehe Neusprech).
- strikter Konformismus und die allgemein herrschende Annahme, dass Dissens und Individualität ein Übel seien.
- in der Regel gibt es eine Repräsentationsfigur des Staates, die von den Bürgern fanatisch angebetet wird, in Begleitung eines aufwendigen Personenkultes, wie z. B. für die Figur des Großen Bruders in dem Roman 1984 von George Orwell.
- Angst bzw. Abscheu vor der restlichen Welt außerhalb des eigenen Staates.
- die allgemein herrschende Ansicht, das traditionelle Leben (insbesondere die traditionellen organisierten Religionen) sei primitiv und unsinnig. Alternativ dazu die vollständige Dominierung der Gesellschaft durch eine Staatsreligion, z. B. den Engsoz (Englischer Sozialismus, engl. Ingsoc = English Socialism) in 1984, oder die „Technopriests“ in der Comic-Buchreihe Der Incal rund um den Privatdetektiv John Difool.
- das „historische Gedächtnis“ der bürokratischen Institutionen hebt das kollektive historische Gedächtnis der Menschen auf oder hat Vorrang vor diesem. Im Roman 1984 ist das Ministerium für Wahrheit mit der Anpassung des „autobiographischen“ gesellschaftlichen Gedächtnisses an die Bedürfnisse des Regimes betraut.
- ein Strafvollzugsgesetz, dem eine angemessene Strafprozessordnung fehlt bis hin zum privatisierten Strafvollzug.
- Mangel an lebensnotwendigen Gütern für weite Teile der Bevölkerung, einhergehend mit bevorzugter Versorgung privilegierter Schichten. Dies kann bis zu fast ewigem Leben für Privilegierte gehen (In Time – Deine Zeit läuft ab).
- permanente Überwachung durch die Regierung oder ihre Behörden.
- Abwesenheit oder aber vollständige Kooptation der gebildeten Mittelschicht (z. B. Lehrer, Journalisten, Wissenschaftler), die in der Lage wäre, das herrschende Regime zu kritisieren.
- militarisierte Polizeikräfte bis hin zur Privatisierung von Polizei und Militär.
- die Verbannung der natürlichen (biologischen) Umwelt aus dem Alltag.
- Konstruktion fiktionaler Ansichten über die Realität, die der breiten Masse aufgezwungen werden.
- Korruption, Unfähigkeit oder Usurpation der demokratischen Institutionen.
- vorgetäuschte Rivalität zwischen Gruppen, die tatsächlich ein Kartell bilden.
- die etablierten Kräfte bestehen darauf, dass sie die beste aller möglichen Welten verwirklichen und alle innerstaatlichen Probleme durch die Kräfte des (wenn nötig auch fiktiven) Feindes verursacht werden.
- ein übergreifender, langsamer Zerfall aller Systeme (politisch, ökonomisch, religiös, infrastrukturell …), der der Entfremdung des Einzelnen von der Natur, dem Staat, der Gesellschaft, der Familie sowie sich selbst geschuldet ist.
- Kritik, die trotz repressiver Maßnahmen des Regimes öffentlich wird, wird von der Medien- und Vergnügungskultur der Gesellschaft aufgesogen, trivialisiert und damit ins Absurde verkehrt, so z. B. in Schöne Neue Welt, in dem die Geschichte des Protagonisten „Michel“ (in der englischen Ausgabe „John“, auch the Savage „der Wilde“) von den staatlichen Medien zum reinen Zwecke der Unterhaltung bzw. Vergnügung für breite Bevölkerungsschichten aufbereitet wird.
- Ausrichtung von Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft auf Stabilität. Die Ökonomie in dystopischen Gesellschaften ist so strukturiert, dass die Regierung oder das ökonomische System selbst immun gegenüber Veränderungen oder Störungen ist.
- Industrien arbeiten mit maximaler Effizienz und Kapazität, der erwirtschaftete Überschuss wird dabei vom Staat absorbiert. In 1984 sind die lebensnotwendigen Güter rationiert, und der erwirtschaftete Überschuss wird vom immerwährenden „Krieg“ gegen Eurasien oder Ostasien aufgesogen. In Schöne Neue Welt fließt der Überschuss in das extreme Konsumverhalten der Bevölkerung, zu dem die Bevölkerung gar von der Regierung konditioniert wird.
Grundzüge dystopischer Fiktionen
Viele Filme und literarische Werke über dystopische Gesellschaften weisen zumeist einige der folgenden Züge auf:
- eine punktuell erzählte Vorgeschichte über einen Krieg, eine Revolution, einen Aufstand, demographische Verwerfungen, eine Naturkatastrophe oder einen klimatischen Wandel mit dramatischen gesellschaftlichen Auswirkungen.
- ein Lebensstandard in den Unter- und Mittelschichten, der im Allgemeinen unter dem Niveau zeitgenössischer Gesellschaften liegt. Jedoch gibt es Ausnahmen, so z. B. in Schöne Neue Welt und Equilibrium, in denen die Bevölkerung zwar einen vergleichsweise hohen materiellen Standard genießt, sich diesen jedoch um den Preis ideeller Qualitäten wie z. B. dem Verlust von emotionaler Tiefe erkauft.
- ein Protagonist, der die gesellschaftlichen Verhältnisse hinterfragt und oft intuitiv spürt, dass etwas im Argen liegt, so wie der Protagonist V in Alan Moores V wie Vendetta, oder Neo in Matrix.
- notwendigerweise, sofern die Fiktion auf unserer Welt beruht, eine Schwerpunktsverlagerung der Kontrolle hin zu Großkonzernen, autokratischen Cliquen oder Bürokratien.
Um den Leser in den Bann zu ziehen, nutzen dystopische Fiktionen üblicherweise Vertrautheit als ein weiteres Mittel: Es reicht nicht, das Leben in einer Gesellschaft zu schildern, die unerfreulich erscheint. In der fiktiven dystopischen Gesellschaft müssen Elemente aus dem Hier und Jetzt anklingen, die dem Leser aus seinem eigenen Erfahrungshorizont bekannt sind. Wenn der Leser die Muster oder Trends identifizieren kann, die unsere heutige Gesellschaft potentiell in das fiktive Dystopia führen könnten, wird die Beschäftigung mit der Fiktion zu einer fesselnden und wirkungsvollen Erfahrung. Schriftsteller können Dystopien wirksam nutzen, um ihre eigene Besorgnis über gesellschaftliche Trends zum Ausdruck zu bringen. So basiert George Orwells Roman 1984 auf politischen Entwicklungen im Jahr seiner Niederschrift 1948, in dem sich bereits ein eisiges Klima im Nachkriegs-Europa abzeichnete. In ähnlicher Weise schrieb Ayn Rand ihre Erzählung Anthem (deutsch: Die Hymne des Menschen) als eine Warnung vor der Unterordnung des Individuums unter den Staat oder „das Wir“. In Sebastian Guhrs Roman Die Selbstlosen werden Tierrechte über Menschenrechte gestellt. Margaret Atwood schrieb Der Report der Magd als eine Warnung vor dem aufkommenden religiös-fundamentalistischen Totalitarismus in den USA und der Scheinheiligkeit des Feminismus der 1970er-Jahre, der eher der Sache seiner Gegner in die Hände spielte.
Dystopische Fiktionen sind oftmals (aber nicht immer) ungelöst, das heißt, die Erzählung handelt von Individuen, die unbefriedigt sind und eventuell rebellieren, aber letztlich in ihren Bemühungen, etwas zu verändern, scheitern. Nicht selten fügen sie sich am Ende den gesellschaftlichen Normen. Dieser erzählerische Bogen, hin zu einem Gefühl der Hoffnungslosigkeit, ist bezeichnend für klassische dystopische Werke wie 1984. Sie stehen in krassem Kontrast zu Fiktionen, in denen ein Held erfolgreich Konflikte löst oder anderweitig Dinge zum Besseren kehrt.
In einer dystopischen Gesellschaft gibt es meist Teile der Bevölkerung, die nicht unter der vollständigen Kontrolle des Staates stehen, und in die der Held der Geschichte üblicherweise seine Hoffnungen setzt, aber am Ende dennoch scheitert. In 1984 von George Orwell sind das die „Proles“ (das Proletariat), in der Dystopie Wir von Jewgeni Iwanowitsch Samjatin sind es die Menschen außerhalb der Mauern des „Einzigen Staates“.
Kritik am Konzept von Dystopien
Ebenso wie die meisten Philosophen, Politikwissenschaftler und Schriftsteller die Idee einer perfekten Gesellschaft oder eines „Utopias“ aufgegeben haben, haben viele auch Skepsis geäußert in Bezug auf die Wahrscheinlichkeit eines realen Dystopias in der Fassung von Orwell und anderen. Obgleich es viele Staaten mit absolutistischem Machtanspruch in der Menschheitsgeschichte gegeben hat, weisen Schriftsteller wie Gregg Easterbrook und andere darauf hin, dass solche Gesellschaften zur Selbstzerstörung tendieren oder aber von benachbarten Gesellschaften zerstört werden. Diktaturen und ähnliche Regime neigen zur Kurzlebigkeit, da sie durch ihre Politik und ihre Handlungen kontinuierlich neue potentielle Gegner auf den Plan rufen.
Eine kritische Sicht auf dystopische Gesellschaftsverhältnisse besteht darin, sie als den drohenden Gang der Dinge zu betrachten. Demnach trachten alle sozialen Konstrukte (Ideen wie Organisationen) ohne Unterlass danach, synergetische Gewinne durch Einschränkung der Freiheitsgrade und Nichtkonformitäten der Individuen zu erzielen. In gemäßigtem Maße ergibt dies für das Individuum die Segnungen der Kultur und Zivilisation, im Exzess führt dies zur Dystopie, wenn nämlich versucht wird, durch Überreglementierung und zwangsweise verabreichte Drogen den (komplexeren) biologischen Unterbau des Individuums auszuschalten, der zum Menschsein ebenso unerlässlich ist wie der soziale Überbau.[4]
Moderne Dystopien
Schon im 19. Jahrhundert gab es dystopische Szenarien (Edward Bulwer-Lytton: Das kommende Geschlecht), doch blieben diese randständig. Im 20. Jahrhundert entstand mit Samjatins Wir die erste „klassische“ Dystopie, in der gezeigt wird, wohin die etatistische Utopietradition führen kann, wenn sie auf dem technisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Stand des 20. Jahrhunderts aufbaut. Kurzgeschichten von Philip K. Dick wie Kolonie, Autofab und Der Minderheiten-Bericht (verfilmt als Minority Report) sind Klassiker der Dystopie. Das Warhammer-40.000-Universum, kreiert von Games Workshop als Tabletop-Spiel, aber in Büchern und Videospielen fortgesetzt, zeigt den Weg der Menschheit im 41. Jahrtausend: Unterdrückt, tyrannisiert von einer Bürokratie im Auftrag des sogenannten „Gott-Imperators“, ständig im ewigen Krieg und Abwehrkampf gegen der Menschheit feindlich gesinnte Fraktionen wie Aliens und Dämonen.
Dystopia
Ancient Greek δυσ- "bad" and τόπος "place"; alternatively, cacotopia,[1] kakotopia, or simply anti-utopia) is a community or society that is undesirable or frightening.[2][3] It is translated as "bad place" and is an antonym of utopia, a term that was coined by Sir Thomas More and figures as the title of his best known work, published 1516, a blueprint for an ideal society with minimal crime, violence and poverty.
Dystopias are often characterized by dehumanization,[2] tyrannical governments, environmental disaster,[3] or other characteristics associated with a cataclysmic decline in society. Dystopian societies appear in many fictional works and artistic representations particularly in stories set in the future. Some of the most famous examples are George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451. Dystopian societies appear in many sub-genres of fiction and are often used to draw attention to society, environment, politics, economics, religion, psychology, ethics, science or technology. Some authors use the term to refer to existing societies, many of which are or have been totalitarian states or societies in an advanced state of collapse.
Some scholars, such as Gregory Claeys and Lyman Tower Sargent, make certain distinctions between typical synonyms of dystopias. For example, Claeys and Sargent define literary dystopias as societies imagined as substantially worse than the society in which the author writes, whereas anti-utopias function as criticisms of attempts to implement various concepts of utopia.[4] In his Dystopia: A Natural History (Oxford University Press, 2017) Claeys offers a more nuanced and historical approach to these definitions. Here the tradition is traced from early reactions to the French Revolution. Its commonly anti-collectivist character is stressed, and the addition of other themes (the dangers of science and technology, of social inequality, of corporate dictatorship, of nuclear war) are also traced.
Dystopias are often characterized by dehumanization,[2] tyrannical governments, environmental disaster,[3] or other characteristics associated with a cataclysmic decline in society. Dystopian societies appear in many fictional works and artistic representations particularly in stories set in the future. Some of the most famous examples are George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451. Dystopian societies appear in many sub-genres of fiction and are often used to draw attention to society, environment, politics, economics, religion, psychology, ethics, science or technology. Some authors use the term to refer to existing societies, many of which are or have been totalitarian states or societies in an advanced state of collapse.
Some scholars, such as Gregory Claeys and Lyman Tower Sargent, make certain distinctions between typical synonyms of dystopias. For example, Claeys and Sargent define literary dystopias as societies imagined as substantially worse than the society in which the author writes, whereas anti-utopias function as criticisms of attempts to implement various concepts of utopia.[4] In his Dystopia: A Natural History (Oxford University Press, 2017) Claeys offers a more nuanced and historical approach to these definitions. Here the tradition is traced from early reactions to the French Revolution. Its commonly anti-collectivist character is stressed, and the addition of other themes (the dangers of science and technology, of social inequality, of corporate dictatorship, of nuclear war) are also traced.
Etymology
Though several earlier usages are known, dystopia was used as an antonym for Utopia by John Stuart Mill in one of his Parliamentary Speeches 1868 (Hansard Commons) by adding the prefix "dys" (Ancient Greek: δυσ- "bad"), reinterpreting the initial U as the prefix "eu" (Ancient Greek: ευ- "good") instead of "ou" (Ancient Greek: οὐ "not").[5][6] It was used to denounce the government's Irish land policy: "It is, perhaps, too complimentary to call them Utopians, they ought rather to be called dys-topians, or caco-topians. What is commonly called Utopian is something too good to be practicable; but what they appear to favour is too bad to be practicable".[7][8][9][10]
Decades before the first documented use of the word "dystopia" was "cacotopia" (using Ancient Greek: κακόs, "bad, wicked") originally proposed in 1818 by Jeremy Bentham, "As a match for utopia (or the imagined seat of the best government) suppose a cacotopia (or the imagined seat of the worst government) discovered and described".[11][12] Though dystopia became the most popular term, cacotopia finds occasional use; Anthony Burgess, author of A Clockwork Orange, said it was a better fit for Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four because "it sounds worse than dystopia".[13]
Though several earlier usages are known, dystopia was used as an antonym for Utopia by John Stuart Mill in one of his Parliamentary Speeches 1868 (Hansard Commons) by adding the prefix "dys" (Ancient Greek: δυσ- "bad"), reinterpreting the initial U as the prefix "eu" (Ancient Greek: ευ- "good") instead of "ou" (Ancient Greek: οὐ "not").[5][6] It was used to denounce the government's Irish land policy: "It is, perhaps, too complimentary to call them Utopians, they ought rather to be called dys-topians, or caco-topians. What is commonly called Utopian is something too good to be practicable; but what they appear to favour is too bad to be practicable".[7][8][9][10]
Decades before the first documented use of the word "dystopia" was "cacotopia" (using Ancient Greek: κακόs, "bad, wicked") originally proposed in 1818 by Jeremy Bentham, "As a match for utopia (or the imagined seat of the best government) suppose a cacotopia (or the imagined seat of the worst government) discovered and described".[11][12] Though dystopia became the most popular term, cacotopia finds occasional use; Anthony Burgess, author of A Clockwork Orange, said it was a better fit for Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four because "it sounds worse than dystopia".[13]
Society[edit]
Dystopias typically reflect contemporary sociopolitical realities and extrapolate worst-case scenarios as warnings for necessary social change or caution.[14] Dystopian fictions invariably reflect the concerns and fears of its contemporaneous culture.[15] Due to this they are a subject of social studies.[citation needed] Syreeta McFadden notes that contemporary dystopian literature and films increasingly pull their inspiration from the worst imaginings of ourselves and present reality, making it often hard to distinguish between entertainment and reality.[14]
In a 1967 study Frank Kermode suggests that the failure of religious prophecies led to a shift in how society apprehends this ancient mode. Christopher Schmidt notes that while the world goes to waste for future generations we distract ourselves from disaster by passively watching it as entertainment.[16]
In recent years there has seen a surge of popular dystopian young adult literature and blockbuster films.[17][16] Theo James, actor in Divergent, notes that "young people in particular have such a fascination with this kind of story", saying "It's becoming part of the consciousness. You grow up in a world where it's part of the conversation all the time – the statistics of our planet warming up. The environment is changing. The weather is different. There are things that are very visceral and very obvious, and they make you question the future and how we will survive. It's so much a part of everyday life that young people inevitably — consciously or not — are questioning their futures and how the Earth will be. I certainly do. I wonder what kind of world my children's kids will live in."[17]
Some have commented on this trend, saying that "it is easier to imagine the end of the world than it is to imagine the end of capitalism".[18][19][20][21]
Dystopias typically reflect contemporary sociopolitical realities and extrapolate worst-case scenarios as warnings for necessary social change or caution.[14] Dystopian fictions invariably reflect the concerns and fears of its contemporaneous culture.[15] Due to this they are a subject of social studies.[citation needed] Syreeta McFadden notes that contemporary dystopian literature and films increasingly pull their inspiration from the worst imaginings of ourselves and present reality, making it often hard to distinguish between entertainment and reality.[14]
In a 1967 study Frank Kermode suggests that the failure of religious prophecies led to a shift in how society apprehends this ancient mode. Christopher Schmidt notes that while the world goes to waste for future generations we distract ourselves from disaster by passively watching it as entertainment.[16]
In recent years there has seen a surge of popular dystopian young adult literature and blockbuster films.[17][16] Theo James, actor in Divergent, notes that "young people in particular have such a fascination with this kind of story", saying "It's becoming part of the consciousness. You grow up in a world where it's part of the conversation all the time – the statistics of our planet warming up. The environment is changing. The weather is different. There are things that are very visceral and very obvious, and they make you question the future and how we will survive. It's so much a part of everyday life that young people inevitably — consciously or not — are questioning their futures and how the Earth will be. I certainly do. I wonder what kind of world my children's kids will live in."[17]
Some have commented on this trend, saying that "it is easier to imagine the end of the world than it is to imagine the end of capitalism".[18][19][20][21]
Common theme[edit]
Politics[edit]
In When the Sleeper Wakes, H. G. Wells depicted the governing class as hedonistic and shallow.[22] George Orwell contrasted Wells's world to that depicted in Jack London's The Iron Heel, where the dystopian rulers are brutal and dedicated to the point of fanaticism, which Orwell considered more plausible.[23]
The political principles at the root of fictional utopias (or "perfect worlds") are idealistic in principle and result in positive consequences for the inhabitants; the political principles on which fictional dystopias are based, while often based on utopian ideals, result in negative consequences for inhabitants because of at least one fatal flaw.[24][25]
Dystopias are often filled with pessimistic views of the ruling class or a government that is brutal or uncaring, ruling with an "iron fist".[citation needed] Dystopian governments are sometimes ruled by a fascist regime or dictator. These dystopian government establishments often have protagonists or groups that lead a "resistance" to enact change within their society, as is seen in Alan Moore's V for Vendetta.[26]
Dystopian political situations are depicted in novels such as We, Parable of the Sower, Darkness at Noon, Nineteen Eighty-Four, Brave New World, The Hunger Games, Divergent and Fahrenheit 451 and such films as Metropolis, Brazil, Battle Royale, FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions, Soylent Green, Logan's Run, and The Running Man.
In When the Sleeper Wakes, H. G. Wells depicted the governing class as hedonistic and shallow.[22] George Orwell contrasted Wells's world to that depicted in Jack London's The Iron Heel, where the dystopian rulers are brutal and dedicated to the point of fanaticism, which Orwell considered more plausible.[23]
The political principles at the root of fictional utopias (or "perfect worlds") are idealistic in principle and result in positive consequences for the inhabitants; the political principles on which fictional dystopias are based, while often based on utopian ideals, result in negative consequences for inhabitants because of at least one fatal flaw.[24][25]
Dystopias are often filled with pessimistic views of the ruling class or a government that is brutal or uncaring, ruling with an "iron fist".[citation needed] Dystopian governments are sometimes ruled by a fascist regime or dictator. These dystopian government establishments often have protagonists or groups that lead a "resistance" to enact change within their society, as is seen in Alan Moore's V for Vendetta.[26]
Dystopian political situations are depicted in novels such as We, Parable of the Sower, Darkness at Noon, Nineteen Eighty-Four, Brave New World, The Hunger Games, Divergent and Fahrenheit 451 and such films as Metropolis, Brazil, Battle Royale, FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions, Soylent Green, Logan's Run, and The Running Man.
Economics[edit]
The economic structures of dystopian societies in literature and other media have many variations, as the economy often relates directly to the elements that the writer is depicting as the source of the oppression. There are several archetypes that such societies tend to follow. A theme is the dichotomy of planned economies versus free market economies, a conflict which is found in such works as Ayn Rand's Anthem and Henry Kuttner's short story "The Iron Standard". Another example of this is reflected in Norman Jewison's 1975 film Rollerball.
Some dystopias, such as that of Nineteen Eighty-Four, feature black markets with goods that are dangerous and difficult to obtain or the characters may be at the mercy of the state-controlled economy. Kurt Vonnegut's Player Piano depicts a dystopia in which the centrally controlled economic system has indeed made material abundance plentiful but deprived the mass of humanity of meaningful labor; virtually all work is menial, unsatisfying and only a small number of the small group that achieves education is admitted to the elite and its work.[27] In Tanith Lee's Don't Bite the Sun, there is no want of any kind – only unabashed consumption and hedonism, leading the protagonist to begin looking for a deeper meaning to existence.[28] Even in dystopias where the economic system is not the source of the society's flaws, as in Brave New World, the state often controls the economy; a character, reacting with horror to the suggestion of not being part of the social body, cites as a reason that everyone works for everyone else.[29]
Other works feature extensive privatization and corporatism; both consequences of capitalism, where privately owned and unaccountable large corporations have replaced the government in setting policy and making decisions. They manipulate, infiltrate, control, bribe, are contracted by and function as government. This is seen in the novels Jennifer Government and Oryx and Crake and the movies Alien, Avatar, RoboCop, Visioneers, Idiocracy, Soylent Green, THX 1138, WALL-E and Rollerball. Corporate republics are common in the cyberpunk genre, as in Neal Stephenson's Snow Crash and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (as well as the film Blade Runner, influenced by Dick's novel).
The economic structures of dystopian societies in literature and other media have many variations, as the economy often relates directly to the elements that the writer is depicting as the source of the oppression. There are several archetypes that such societies tend to follow. A theme is the dichotomy of planned economies versus free market economies, a conflict which is found in such works as Ayn Rand's Anthem and Henry Kuttner's short story "The Iron Standard". Another example of this is reflected in Norman Jewison's 1975 film Rollerball.
Some dystopias, such as that of Nineteen Eighty-Four, feature black markets with goods that are dangerous and difficult to obtain or the characters may be at the mercy of the state-controlled economy. Kurt Vonnegut's Player Piano depicts a dystopia in which the centrally controlled economic system has indeed made material abundance plentiful but deprived the mass of humanity of meaningful labor; virtually all work is menial, unsatisfying and only a small number of the small group that achieves education is admitted to the elite and its work.[27] In Tanith Lee's Don't Bite the Sun, there is no want of any kind – only unabashed consumption and hedonism, leading the protagonist to begin looking for a deeper meaning to existence.[28] Even in dystopias where the economic system is not the source of the society's flaws, as in Brave New World, the state often controls the economy; a character, reacting with horror to the suggestion of not being part of the social body, cites as a reason that everyone works for everyone else.[29]
Other works feature extensive privatization and corporatism; both consequences of capitalism, where privately owned and unaccountable large corporations have replaced the government in setting policy and making decisions. They manipulate, infiltrate, control, bribe, are contracted by and function as government. This is seen in the novels Jennifer Government and Oryx and Crake and the movies Alien, Avatar, RoboCop, Visioneers, Idiocracy, Soylent Green, THX 1138, WALL-E and Rollerball. Corporate republics are common in the cyberpunk genre, as in Neal Stephenson's Snow Crash and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (as well as the film Blade Runner, influenced by Dick's novel).
Class[edit]
Dystopian fiction frequently draws stark contrasts between the privileges of the ruling class and the dreary existence of the working class.[citation needed] In the novel Brave New World, written in 1931 by Aldous Huxley, a class system is prenatally determined with Alphas, Betas, Gammas, Deltas and Epsilons, with the lower classes having reduced brain-function and special conditioning to make them satisfied with their position in life.[30] Outside of this society there also exist several human settlements that exist in the conventional way but which the class system describe as "savages".
In Ypsilon Minus by Herbert W. Franke, people are divided into numerous alphabetically ranked groups.
Dystopian fiction frequently draws stark contrasts between the privileges of the ruling class and the dreary existence of the working class.[citation needed] In the novel Brave New World, written in 1931 by Aldous Huxley, a class system is prenatally determined with Alphas, Betas, Gammas, Deltas and Epsilons, with the lower classes having reduced brain-function and special conditioning to make them satisfied with their position in life.[30] Outside of this society there also exist several human settlements that exist in the conventional way but which the class system describe as "savages".
In Ypsilon Minus by Herbert W. Franke, people are divided into numerous alphabetically ranked groups.
Family[edit]
Some fictional dystopias, such as Brave New World and Fahrenheit 451, have eradicated the family and keep it from re-establishing itself as a social institution. In Brave New World, where children are reproduced artificially, the concepts "mother" and "father" are considered obscene. In some novels, the State is hostile to motherhood; in of a pregnant woman from One State is a revolt.[31]
Some fictional dystopias, such as Brave New World and Fahrenheit 451, have eradicated the family and keep it from re-establishing itself as a social institution. In Brave New World, where children are reproduced artificially, the concepts "mother" and "father" are considered obscene. In some novels, the State is hostile to motherhood; in of a pregnant woman from One State is a revolt.[31]
Religion[edit]
Religious groups play the role of the oppressed and oppressors. In Brave New World the establishment of the state included lopping off the tops of all crosses (as symbols of Christianity) to make them "T"s, (as symbols of Henry Ford's Model T).[32] Margaret Atwood's novel The Handmaid's Tale takes place in a future United States under a Christian-based theocratic regime.[33] One of the earliest examples of this theme is Robert Hugh Benson's Lord of the World, about a futuristic world where the Freemasons have taken over the world and the only other religion left is a Roman Catholic minority.[citation needed]
Religious groups play the role of the oppressed and oppressors. In Brave New World the establishment of the state included lopping off the tops of all crosses (as symbols of Christianity) to make them "T"s, (as symbols of Henry Ford's Model T).[32] Margaret Atwood's novel The Handmaid's Tale takes place in a future United States under a Christian-based theocratic regime.[33] One of the earliest examples of this theme is Robert Hugh Benson's Lord of the World, about a futuristic world where the Freemasons have taken over the world and the only other religion left is a Roman Catholic minority.[citation needed]
Identity[edit]
In the Russian novel We by Yevgeny Zamyatin, first published in 1921, people are permitted to live out of public view twice a week for one hour and are only referred to by numbers instead of names. In some dystopian works, such as Kurt Vonnegut's Harrison Bergeron, society forces individuals to conform to radical egalitarian social norms that discourage or suppress accomplishment or even competence as forms of inequality.
In the Russian novel We by Yevgeny Zamyatin, first published in 1921, people are permitted to live out of public view twice a week for one hour and are only referred to by numbers instead of names. In some dystopian works, such as Kurt Vonnegut's Harrison Bergeron, society forces individuals to conform to radical egalitarian social norms that discourage or suppress accomplishment or even competence as forms of inequality.
Violence[edit]
Violence is prevalent in many dystopias, often in the form of war; urban crimes led by gangs (often of teenagers) (e.g. A Clockwork Orange) rampant crime met by blood sports (e.g. Battle Royale, The Running Man, The Hunger Games and Divergent). Also explained in Suzanne Berne's essay "Ground Zero", where she explains her experience of the aftermath of 11 September 2001.[34]
Violence is prevalent in many dystopias, often in the form of war; urban crimes led by gangs (often of teenagers) (e.g. A Clockwork Orange) rampant crime met by blood sports (e.g. Battle Royale, The Running Man, The Hunger Games and Divergent). Also explained in Suzanne Berne's essay "Ground Zero", where she explains her experience of the aftermath of 11 September 2001.[34]
Nature[edit]
Fictional dystopias are commonly urban and frequently isolate their characters from all contact with the natural world.[35] Sometimes they require their characters to avoid nature, as when walks are regarded as dangerously anti-social in Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, as well as within Bradbury's short story "The Pedestrian".[citation needed] In C. S. Lewis's That Hideous Strength, science coordinated by government is directed toward the control of nature and the elimination of natural human instincts. In Brave New World, the lower class is conditioned to be afraid of nature but also to visit the countryside and consume transport and games to promote economic activity.[36] Lois Lowry's "The Giver" shows a society where technology and the desire to create a utopia has led humanity to enforce climate control on the environment, as well as to eliminate many undomesticated species and to provide psychological and pharmaceutical repellent against human instincts. E. M. Forster's "The Machine Stops" depicts a highly changed global environment which forces people to live underground due to an atmospheric contamination.[37] As Angel Galdon-Rodriguez points out, this sort of isolation caused by external toxic hazard is later used by Hugh Howey in his series of dystopias of the Silo Series.[38]
Excessive pollution that destroys nature is common in many dystopian films, such as The Matrix, RoboCop, WALL-E, and Soylent Green. A few "green" fictional dystopias do exist, such as in Michael Carson's short story "The Punishment of Luxury", and Russell Hoban's Riddley Walker. The latter is set in the aftermath of nuclear war, "a post-nuclear holocaust Kent, where technology has reduced to the level of the Iron Age".[39][citation needed]
Fictional dystopias are commonly urban and frequently isolate their characters from all contact with the natural world.[35] Sometimes they require their characters to avoid nature, as when walks are regarded as dangerously anti-social in Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, as well as within Bradbury's short story "The Pedestrian".[citation needed] In C. S. Lewis's That Hideous Strength, science coordinated by government is directed toward the control of nature and the elimination of natural human instincts. In Brave New World, the lower class is conditioned to be afraid of nature but also to visit the countryside and consume transport and games to promote economic activity.[36] Lois Lowry's "The Giver" shows a society where technology and the desire to create a utopia has led humanity to enforce climate control on the environment, as well as to eliminate many undomesticated species and to provide psychological and pharmaceutical repellent against human instincts. E. M. Forster's "The Machine Stops" depicts a highly changed global environment which forces people to live underground due to an atmospheric contamination.[37] As Angel Galdon-Rodriguez points out, this sort of isolation caused by external toxic hazard is later used by Hugh Howey in his series of dystopias of the Silo Series.[38]
Excessive pollution that destroys nature is common in many dystopian films, such as The Matrix, RoboCop, WALL-E, and Soylent Green. A few "green" fictional dystopias do exist, such as in Michael Carson's short story "The Punishment of Luxury", and Russell Hoban's Riddley Walker. The latter is set in the aftermath of nuclear war, "a post-nuclear holocaust Kent, where technology has reduced to the level of the Iron Age".[39][citation needed]
Science and technology[edit]
Contrary to the technologically utopian claims, which view technology as a beneficial addition to all aspects of humanity, technological dystopia concerns itself with and focuses largely (but not always) on the negative effects caused by new technology.[40]
Contrary to the technologically utopian claims, which view technology as a beneficial addition to all aspects of humanity, technological dystopia concerns itself with and focuses largely (but not always) on the negative effects caused by new technology.[40]
Typical dystopian claims[edit]
1. Technologies reflect and encourage the worst aspects of human nature.[40] Jaron Lanier, a digital pioneer, has become a technological dystopian. “I think it’s a way of interpreting technology in which people forgot taking responsibility,” he says.
“‘Oh, it’s the computer that did it, not me.’ ‘There’s no more middle class? Oh, it’s not me. The computer did it’” (Lanier). This quote explains that people begin to not only blame the technology for the changes in lifestyle but also believe that technology is an omnipotence. It also points to a technological determinist perspective in terms of reification.[41]
2. Technologies harm our interpersonal communication, relationships, and communities.[42]
- decrease in communication within family members and friend groups due to increased time in technology use
- virtual space misleadingly heightens the impact of real presence; people resort to technological medium for communication nowadays
3. Technologies reinforce hierarchies - concentrate knowledge and skills; increase surveillance and erode privacy; widen inequalities of power and wealth; giving up control to machines). Douglas Rushkoff, a technological utopian, states in his article that the professional designers “re-mystified” the computer so it wasn't so readable anymore; users had to depend on the special programs built into the software that was incomprehensible for normal users.[40]
4. New technologies are sometimes regressive (worse than previous technologies).[40]
5. The unforeseen impacts of technology are negative.[40] “ ‘The most common way is that there’s some magic artificial intelligence in the sky or in the cloud or something that knows how to translate, and what a wonderful thing that this is available for free. But there’s another way to look at it, which is the technically true way: You gather a ton of information from real live translators who have translated phrases… It’s huge but very much like Facebook, it’s selling people back to themselves… [With translation] you’re producing this result that looks magical but in the meantime, the original translators aren’t paid for their work… You’re actually shrinking the economy.’”[42]
6. More efficiency and choices can harm our quality of life (by causing stress, destroying jobs, making us more materialistic).[43] In his article “Prest-o! Change-o!,” technological dystopian James Gleick mentions the remote control being the classic example of technology that does not solve the problem “it is meant to solve.” Gleick quotes Edward Tenner, a historian of technology, that the ability and ease of switching channels by the remote control serves to increase distraction for the viewer. Then it is only expected that people will become more dissatisfied with the channel they are watching.[43]
7. New technologies cannot solve problems of old technologies or just create new problems.[40] The remote control example explains this claim as well, for the increase in laziness and dissatisfaction levels was clearly not a problem in times without the remote control. He also takes social psychologist Robert Levine's example of Indonesians “‘whose main entertainment consists of watching the same few plays and dances, month after month, year after year,’ and with Nepalese Sherpas who eat the same meals of potatoes and tea through their entire lives. The Indonesians and Sherpas are perfectly satisfied.” Because of the invention of the remote control, it merely created more problems.[43]
8. Technologies destroy nature (harming human health and the environment). The need for business replaced community and the “story online” replaced people as the “soul of the Net.” Because information was now able to be bought and sold, there was not as much communication taking place.[40]
1. Technologies reflect and encourage the worst aspects of human nature.[40] Jaron Lanier, a digital pioneer, has become a technological dystopian. “I think it’s a way of interpreting technology in which people forgot taking responsibility,” he says.
“‘Oh, it’s the computer that did it, not me.’ ‘There’s no more middle class? Oh, it’s not me. The computer did it’” (Lanier). This quote explains that people begin to not only blame the technology for the changes in lifestyle but also believe that technology is an omnipotence. It also points to a technological determinist perspective in terms of reification.[41]
2. Technologies harm our interpersonal communication, relationships, and communities.[42]
- decrease in communication within family members and friend groups due to increased time in technology use
- virtual space misleadingly heightens the impact of real presence; people resort to technological medium for communication nowadays
3. Technologies reinforce hierarchies - concentrate knowledge and skills; increase surveillance and erode privacy; widen inequalities of power and wealth; giving up control to machines). Douglas Rushkoff, a technological utopian, states in his article that the professional designers “re-mystified” the computer so it wasn't so readable anymore; users had to depend on the special programs built into the software that was incomprehensible for normal users.[40]
4. New technologies are sometimes regressive (worse than previous technologies).[40]
5. The unforeseen impacts of technology are negative.[40] “ ‘The most common way is that there’s some magic artificial intelligence in the sky or in the cloud or something that knows how to translate, and what a wonderful thing that this is available for free. But there’s another way to look at it, which is the technically true way: You gather a ton of information from real live translators who have translated phrases… It’s huge but very much like Facebook, it’s selling people back to themselves… [With translation] you’re producing this result that looks magical but in the meantime, the original translators aren’t paid for their work… You’re actually shrinking the economy.’”[42]
6. More efficiency and choices can harm our quality of life (by causing stress, destroying jobs, making us more materialistic).[43] In his article “Prest-o! Change-o!,” technological dystopian James Gleick mentions the remote control being the classic example of technology that does not solve the problem “it is meant to solve.” Gleick quotes Edward Tenner, a historian of technology, that the ability and ease of switching channels by the remote control serves to increase distraction for the viewer. Then it is only expected that people will become more dissatisfied with the channel they are watching.[43]
7. New technologies cannot solve problems of old technologies or just create new problems.[40] The remote control example explains this claim as well, for the increase in laziness and dissatisfaction levels was clearly not a problem in times without the remote control. He also takes social psychologist Robert Levine's example of Indonesians “‘whose main entertainment consists of watching the same few plays and dances, month after month, year after year,’ and with Nepalese Sherpas who eat the same meals of potatoes and tea through their entire lives. The Indonesians and Sherpas are perfectly satisfied.” Because of the invention of the remote control, it merely created more problems.[43]
8. Technologies destroy nature (harming human health and the environment). The need for business replaced community and the “story online” replaced people as the “soul of the Net.” Because information was now able to be bought and sold, there was not as much communication taking place.[40]
See also[edit]
- List of dystopian works
- List of dystopian literature
- List of dystopian films
- List of dystopian music, TV programs, and games
- List of dystopian comics
- Alternate history
- Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction
- Biopunk
- Cyberpunk
- Self-fulfilling prophecy
- Social science fiction
- Societal collapse
- Soft science fiction
- Utopian and dystopian fiction - possibly Utopia Against Dystopia.
- List of dystopian works
- List of dystopian literature
- List of dystopian films
- List of dystopian music, TV programs, and games
- List of dystopian comics
- Alternate history
- Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction
- Biopunk
- Cyberpunk
- Self-fulfilling prophecy
- Social science fiction
- Societal collapse
- Soft science fiction
- Utopian and dystopian fiction - possibly Utopia Against Dystopia.
References[edit]
- ^ Cacotopia (from κακός kakos "bad") was the term used by Jeremy Bentham in his 1818 Plan of Parliamentary Reform ("Dystopia". Archived from the original on 26 March 2006. Retrieved 19 March 2006. [1])
- ^ ab "Definition of "dystopia"". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 2012.
- ^ ab "Definition of "dystopia"". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. 2012.
- ^ Claeys, Gregory; Sargent, Lyman Tower (November 1999). The Utopia Reader. ISBN 9780814715710.
- ^ Tisdall, Nigel (4 November 2016). "Postcard from Belgium: the birthplace of utopia". Financial Times. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- ^ Mill, John Stuart (1988). Public and parliamentary speeches - Part I - November 1850 - November 1868. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-415-03791-3. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
- ^ Cf. "Dystopia Timeline" Archived 3 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine, in Exploring Dystopia, "edited and designed by Niclas Hermansson; Contributors: Acolyte of Death ('Gattaca'), John Steinbach ('Nuclear Nightmare'), [and] David Clements ('From Dystopia to Myopia')" (hem.passagen.se), Niclas Hermansson, n.d., Web, 22 May 2009.
- ^ "Dystopia". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a "dystopia" is: "An imaginary place or condition in which everything is as bad as possible; opp. UTOPIA (cf. CACOTOPIA). So dystopian n., one who advocates or describes a dystopia; dystopian a., of or pertaining to a dystopia; dystopianism, dystopian quality or characteristics." The example of first usage given in the OED (1989 ed.) refers to the 1868 speech by John Stuart Mill quoted above. Other examples given in the OED include:
- ^ "ADJOURNED DEBATE. (Hansard, 12 March 1868)". Hansard.millbanksystems.com. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
- ^ See also Michael S. Roth, "A Dystopia of the Spirit" 230ff., Chap. 15 in Jörn Rüsen, Michael Fehr, and Thomas Rieger, eds., Thinking Utopia, Google Books Preview, n.d., Web, 22 May 2009.
- ^ κακόs, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
- ^ Bentham, Jeremy. (1818). Plan of Parliamentary Reform, in the form of a catechism.
- ^ Beaumont, Matthew. (2006). Cacotopianism, the Paris Commune, and England's Anti-Communist Imaginary, 1870–1900. ELH, 73(2): 465–487.
- ^ ab "Dystopian stories used to reflect our anxieties. Now they reflect our reality". The Guardian. 26 October 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ "Dystopia facts, information, pictures". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ ab "Why are Dystopian Films on the Rise Again?". JSTOR Daily. 19 November 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ ab "Why Do We Love Dystopian Stories So Much? The Cast of Divergent Explains". Time. Retrieved 3 March2017.
- ^ Baker, Stephen; McLaughlin, Greg (1 January 2015). "From Belfast to Bamako: Cinema in the Era of Capitalist Realism". Ireland and Cinema. Palgrave Macmillan UK: 107–116. doi:10.1057/9781137496362_10. ISBN 978-1-349-56410-1.
- ^ Shaviro, Steven (2010). Post Cinematic Affect. John Hunt Publishing. ISBN 9781846944314. Retrieved 3 March2017.
- ^ Allen, Kieran (24 July 2014). Marx and the Alternative to Capitalism. Lulu Press, Inc. ISBN 9781312382626. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ Hassler-Forest, Dan (2012). Capitalist Superheroes: Caped Crusaders in the Neoliberal Age. John Hunt Publishing. ISBN 9781780991795. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on 1984" 153, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on 1984" 147, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ "Utopia", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed., 2004, Dictionary.com, Web, 11 Feb. 2007.
- ^ Mary Ellen Snodgrass, Encyclopedia of Utopian Literature, ABC-Clio Literary Companion Ser. (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio Inc., 1995) xii. ISBN 0-87436-757-3 (10). ISBN 978-0-87436-757-7 (13).
- ^ Jane Donawerth, "Genre Blending and the Critical Dystopia", in Dark Horizons: Science Fiction and the Dystopian Imagination, ed. Raffaella Baccolini and Tom Moylan (New York: Routledge, 2003).
- ^ Howard P. Segal, "Vonnegut's Player Piano: An Ambiguous Technological Dystopia," 163 in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ Lee, Tanith. Don't Bite the Sun. Bantam Books:1999.
- ^ William Matter, "On Brave New World" 98, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction.ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ William Matter, "On Brave New World" 95, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's We" 70, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ William Matter, "On Brave New World" 94, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction.ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid's Tale, McClelland and Stewart, 1985. ISBN 0-7710-0813-9.
- ^ Berne, Suzanne. "Patterns for College Writing". Ground Zero: 182.
- ^ "Avatism and Utopia" 4, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction.ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World.
- ^ Galdon Rodriguez, Angel (2014). "Urban and Natural Spaces in Dystopian Literature Depicted as Opposed Scenarios". Ángulo Recto. Revista de estudios sobre la ciudad como espacio plural. 6 (2). doi:10.5209/rev_ANRE.2014.v6.n2.47585.
- ^ Galdon Rodriguez, Angel (19 December 2014). "Espacios urbanos y naturales como escenarios opuestos en la literatura distópica". Ángulo Recto. Revista de estudios sobre la ciudad como espacio plural. 6 (2): 85–100. doi:10.5209/rev_ANRE.2014.v6.n2.47585. ISSN 1989-4015.
- ^ Self, W. (2002) p. V of introduction to Hoban, R. (2002)[1980] Riddley Walker. Bloomsbury, London.
- ^ ab c d e f g Rushkoff, D. (2002). Renaissance Now! Media Ecology and the New Global Narrative.Explorations in Media Ecology, 1(1), 21-32.
- ^ Chandler, D. (2013, July 3). Technological or Media Determinism. Retrieved March 2, 2015, from http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/tecdet/tdet05.html
- ^ ab Rosenbaum, R. (2013, January 1). What Turned Jaron Lanier Against the Web? Retrieved March 2, 2015, from http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/what-turned-jaron-lanier-against-the-web-165260940/?all&no-ist
- ^ ab c Heitman, B. (2011, April 13). The Information: A History, A Theory, A Flood.(Books)(Book review). The Christian Science Monitor, 146-150.
- ^ Cacotopia (from κακός kakos "bad") was the term used by Jeremy Bentham in his 1818 Plan of Parliamentary Reform ("Dystopia". Archived from the original on 26 March 2006. Retrieved 19 March 2006. [1])
- ^ ab "Definition of "dystopia"". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 2012.
- ^ ab "Definition of "dystopia"". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. 2012.
- ^ Claeys, Gregory; Sargent, Lyman Tower (November 1999). The Utopia Reader. ISBN 9780814715710.
- ^ Tisdall, Nigel (4 November 2016). "Postcard from Belgium: the birthplace of utopia". Financial Times. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- ^ Mill, John Stuart (1988). Public and parliamentary speeches - Part I - November 1850 - November 1868. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-415-03791-3. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
- ^ Cf. "Dystopia Timeline" Archived 3 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine, in Exploring Dystopia, "edited and designed by Niclas Hermansson; Contributors: Acolyte of Death ('Gattaca'), John Steinbach ('Nuclear Nightmare'), [and] David Clements ('From Dystopia to Myopia')" (hem.passagen.se), Niclas Hermansson, n.d., Web, 22 May 2009.
- ^ "Dystopia". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a "dystopia" is: "An imaginary place or condition in which everything is as bad as possible; opp. UTOPIA (cf. CACOTOPIA). So dystopian n., one who advocates or describes a dystopia; dystopian a., of or pertaining to a dystopia; dystopianism, dystopian quality or characteristics." The example of first usage given in the OED (1989 ed.) refers to the 1868 speech by John Stuart Mill quoted above. Other examples given in the OED include:
- ^ "ADJOURNED DEBATE. (Hansard, 12 March 1868)". Hansard.millbanksystems.com. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
- ^ See also Michael S. Roth, "A Dystopia of the Spirit" 230ff., Chap. 15 in Jörn Rüsen, Michael Fehr, and Thomas Rieger, eds., Thinking Utopia, Google Books Preview, n.d., Web, 22 May 2009.
- ^ κακόs, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
- ^ Bentham, Jeremy. (1818). Plan of Parliamentary Reform, in the form of a catechism.
- ^ Beaumont, Matthew. (2006). Cacotopianism, the Paris Commune, and England's Anti-Communist Imaginary, 1870–1900. ELH, 73(2): 465–487.
- ^ ab "Dystopian stories used to reflect our anxieties. Now they reflect our reality". The Guardian. 26 October 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ "Dystopia facts, information, pictures". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ ab "Why are Dystopian Films on the Rise Again?". JSTOR Daily. 19 November 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ ab "Why Do We Love Dystopian Stories So Much? The Cast of Divergent Explains". Time. Retrieved 3 March2017.
- ^ Baker, Stephen; McLaughlin, Greg (1 January 2015). "From Belfast to Bamako: Cinema in the Era of Capitalist Realism". Ireland and Cinema. Palgrave Macmillan UK: 107–116. doi:10.1057/9781137496362_10. ISBN 978-1-349-56410-1.
- ^ Shaviro, Steven (2010). Post Cinematic Affect. John Hunt Publishing. ISBN 9781846944314. Retrieved 3 March2017.
- ^ Allen, Kieran (24 July 2014). Marx and the Alternative to Capitalism. Lulu Press, Inc. ISBN 9781312382626. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ Hassler-Forest, Dan (2012). Capitalist Superheroes: Caped Crusaders in the Neoliberal Age. John Hunt Publishing. ISBN 9781780991795. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on 1984" 153, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ William Steinhoff, "Utopia Reconsidered: Comments on 1984" 147, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ "Utopia", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed., 2004, Dictionary.com, Web, 11 Feb. 2007.
- ^ Mary Ellen Snodgrass, Encyclopedia of Utopian Literature, ABC-Clio Literary Companion Ser. (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio Inc., 1995) xii. ISBN 0-87436-757-3 (10). ISBN 978-0-87436-757-7 (13).
- ^ Jane Donawerth, "Genre Blending and the Critical Dystopia", in Dark Horizons: Science Fiction and the Dystopian Imagination, ed. Raffaella Baccolini and Tom Moylan (New York: Routledge, 2003).
- ^ Howard P. Segal, "Vonnegut's Player Piano: An Ambiguous Technological Dystopia," 163 in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ Lee, Tanith. Don't Bite the Sun. Bantam Books:1999.
- ^ William Matter, "On Brave New World" 98, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction.ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ William Matter, "On Brave New World" 95, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ Gorman Beauchamp, "Zamiatin's We" 70, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ William Matter, "On Brave New World" 94, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction.ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid's Tale, McClelland and Stewart, 1985. ISBN 0-7710-0813-9.
- ^ Berne, Suzanne. "Patterns for College Writing". Ground Zero: 182.
- ^ "Avatism and Utopia" 4, in Eric S. Rabkin, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds., No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction.ISBN 0-8093-1113-5.
- ^ Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World.
- ^ Galdon Rodriguez, Angel (2014). "Urban and Natural Spaces in Dystopian Literature Depicted as Opposed Scenarios". Ángulo Recto. Revista de estudios sobre la ciudad como espacio plural. 6 (2). doi:10.5209/rev_ANRE.2014.v6.n2.47585.
- ^ Galdon Rodriguez, Angel (19 December 2014). "Espacios urbanos y naturales como escenarios opuestos en la literatura distópica". Ángulo Recto. Revista de estudios sobre la ciudad como espacio plural. 6 (2): 85–100. doi:10.5209/rev_ANRE.2014.v6.n2.47585. ISSN 1989-4015.
- ^ Self, W. (2002) p. V of introduction to Hoban, R. (2002)[1980] Riddley Walker. Bloomsbury, London.
- ^ ab c d e f g Rushkoff, D. (2002). Renaissance Now! Media Ecology and the New Global Narrative.Explorations in Media Ecology, 1(1), 21-32.
- ^ Chandler, D. (2013, July 3). Technological or Media Determinism. Retrieved March 2, 2015, from http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/tecdet/tdet05.html
- ^ ab Rosenbaum, R. (2013, January 1). What Turned Jaron Lanier Against the Web? Retrieved March 2, 2015, from http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/what-turned-jaron-lanier-against-the-web-165260940/?all&no-ist
- ^ ab c Heitman, B. (2011, April 13). The Information: A History, A Theory, A Flood.(Books)(Book review). The Christian Science Monitor, 146-150.
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